CiteULike exists as a free Web service since 2004, and it helps “scientists, researchers and academics store, organise, share and discover links to academic research papers”. It is a mixture of web-based soccial bookmarking services and traditional bibliographic management tools; you bookmark academic references and you end up having a data base of your selected documents. It is very easy to bookmark on CiteULike: you clik on “search” in the toolbar, enter any word that has connection with what you want to search for, and when you find the reference that best fits to what you need, simply click in “copy” and it will automatically get stored in your library.

Google Books was also introduced in 2004. This searching tool looks for books and not articles or references, as CiteULikes does; sometimes you get access to the whole book in Google Books, but often that access is limited and you can only read some pages. What’s more, sometimes, once you have visited the same book for more than 3 times, you are not allowed to see it again. These steps are taken so that text printing and copying of material under copyright is prevented.

• CiteULike. (2009, November 29). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 15:30, December 20, 2009, from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=CiteULike&oldid=328621862
• CiteULike, web social académica. (2007, March 1). In El Observatorio (blog). Retrieved 15:34, December 20, 2009, from http://martinej.wordpress.com/2007/03/01/citeulike-web-social-academica/
• Citeulike: A Researcher’s Social Bookmarking Service (2007, April). In ARIADNE. Retrieved 15:47, December 20, 2009, from http://www.ariadne.ac.uk/issue51/emamy-cameron/
• Social Bookmarking Tools (I) A General Review. (2005, April). In D-Lib Magazine. Retrieved 16:21, December 20, 2009, from http://www.dlib.org/dlib/april05/hammond/04hammond.html
• About Google Books. (2009). In Google Books. Retrieved 16:58, December 20, 2009, from http://books.google.com/intl/en/googlebooks/history.html
• Google Books. (2009, December 20). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 17:52, December 20, 2009, from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Google_Books&oldid=332837505

Among the different markup languages, we can find HTML, SGML, XML, DocBook (software documentation) and several XML derivatives.  This last one, XML, is standard from W3C, its objective is the modelation of the data from the documents paying attention to semantics  and XML documents must be well formed (respecting grammar) and also valid (all documents have a similar sketch). The basic components of XML are tags, data elements and a certain hierarchy.

There are different types of markup depending on what you want to do; descriptive markup, for example, is used to label a document (it uses tags to describe extracts from documents); presentation markup is the one that indicates the format of the text (we have to bear in mind that this markup is not enough to process information automatically) whilst procedural markup focusses on the presentation of the text, so, if you have a suitable program to represent the document, the code should be interpreted in the order that appears.

But not only is markup language, XML in this case, channeled into documents; there is an increasing usage of it in the presentation of different types of information such as web services, user interfaces or even playlists, and XML is used because a well-defined and extensible language. Building up your own personal web-page is very simple, you don’t have to have previous technological knowledge since being HTML a markup language, web browsers recognise them quickly.

Another thing to be mentioned is that you can easily link up Web style sheets with HTML; in fact, HTML is the “tool” that has the page’s semantic content and structure, but not its style, style sheet is what you need to do so. Style sheets can be linked to HTML documents in different ways since they may be external, they can be imported, inlaied… so you have to decide which one fits best to your needs.

• Markup language. (2009, November 2). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 11:56, November 8, 2009, from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Markup_language&oldid=323542392
• Lenguajes de marcado. (2009). In HTMLPOINT.com. Retrieved 12:18, November 8, 2009, from http://www.htmlpoint.com/guida/html_01.htm
• Lenguajes de marcado de documentos. (2009). In slideshare, present yourself. Retrieved 12:21, November 8, 2009, from http://www.slideshare.net/tramullas/lenguajes-de-marcado
• Enlazando Hojas de estilo con HTML. (1998). In WDG, Web Design Group. Retrieved 12:37, November 8, 2009, from http://htmlhelp.com/es/reference/css/style-html.html
• Style sheet (web development). (2009, September 13). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 12:49, November 8, 2009, from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Style_sheet_(web_development)&oldid=313643795

Facsimile edition:

This type of documents are mainly manuscripts, codex… classic period documents in short. In a facsimil edition the original text is reproduced on its original medium. To do this, a process of copy is carried out, usually through photography tecniques or silkscreen. This type of edition is really common in museums and libraries, since the public is shown a almost exact copy af the original document (they are not offered the original document because they are usually of huge value and it could be in danger of being stolen or damaged)

Paleographic:

Paleographic editon grows away of literary interes and gets closer to diplomatic and notarial interes, designed to specialists. What paleography tries to do is to reproduce the original text together with an updated document that enables the interpretation of the firts one thanks to the signs used for its interpretation and its transcription.

Diplomatic and interpretative:

In this case, the edition resorts to paleographic texts, but a work of modernization and updating of the ortography and punctuation is carried out, and the text is adapted to the current writing. Editors have to have a deep philologic knowledge to carry out the process previously explained.

Genetic:

This may be the most dinamic edition, for all the stages that has undergone a text are shown, since its creation (a first draft, for example), through its transmision and right to its last edition.

New technologies have played an important role in this process, since they have not only worked as a tool, but also as a spreading means, thanks to the Internet, e-books and now through hypertext, a new format that is changing lirerary world in many senses

• Tipos de edición. Diapositivas de Mercedes Acillona utilizadas en clase. http://plataforma.deusto.es/archivos/usuario39/File/EDICI%C3%93N%20DIGITAL/Los%20tipos%20de%20edici%EF%BF%BDn.pdf
• Edition. (2009, October 25). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 20:29, October 30, 2009, from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Edition&oldid=322006211
• Facsímil. (2009, 14) de octubre. Wikipedia, La enciclopedia libre. Fecha de consulta 20:33, 30 octubre, 2009 from http://es.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Facs%C3%ADmil&oldid=30568487.
• Paleografía. (2009, 4) de septiembre. Wikipedia, La enciclopedia libre. Fecha de consulta: 21:49, 30 octubre, 2009 from http://es.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Paleograf%C3%ADa&oldid=29435596.

Este término se utiliza tanto para referirse a lo que es la versión digital de un libro o para hacer referencia al soporte o dispositivo necesario para poder leer ese tipo de texto. No debemos confundir ebook con hipertexto, pues este último es información estructurada por medio de enlaces, y el ebook es un libro normal digitalizado.

Las principales características que diferencian un ebook de un libro de papel es que, en un dispositivo que ya ocupa menos que un libro puedes almacenar alrededor de seis libros (dependiendo del tamaño de archivo, evidentemente), el dispositivo electrónico te permite realizar búsquedas de palabras o frases, trabajo bastante tedioso si se intenta hacer en un libro de papel, o se puede incluso intercambiar la “biblioteca” que se tenga en un ebook con otras personas. Pero a todo eso debemos añadirle otra serie de ventajas; para leer un libro de papel necesitamos luz, y esta ya viene incorporada en el ebook, permitiéndonos de esta forma leer en cualquier momento y lugar, si se quieren hacer anotaciones, las posibilidades que ofrece un libro electrónico son mejores que apuntar en las hojas, y tampoco podemos eludir el hecho de que ya no se necesita cortar tantos árboles.

Al final, poseer un ebook sale bastante rentable, tanto a los lectores como a los autores, pues estos últimos se ahorran gastos de producción y los primeros pueden encontrar ebooks (hablando del dispositivo) por unos 200€, y los textos se pueden bajar o comprar a un precio asequible.

Pero eso refiriéndonos a nuestra economía, pues pasar demasiado tiempo frente a una pantalla de ordenador o similar no es beneficioso, incluso si estos aparatos están preparados para no dañar tanto la vista, y la batería de estos dispositivos se agota, mientras que un libro lo tienes ahí en cualquier momento, es imposible que se te apague. También cabría mencionar el hecho de que, aunque haya que esperar quizá algún tiempo a que lleguen a las tiendas, los libros de papel “existen”, mientras que hay todavía infinidad de obras que aún no se encuentran en el formato requerido por los libros electrónicos, y de nada nos sirve tener el aparato si no tenemos el texto.

• Panorama de la edición digital. Joseba Abaitua. (2003). In slideshare.net. Retrieved 20:33, October 23, 2009, from http://www.slideshare.net/JosebaAbaitua/panorama-de-la-edicin-digital
• Print books vs. digital ebooks. Sam Kleinman. (2009). In Palmpower.com. Retrieved 20:41, October 13, 2009, from  http://www.palmpower.com/issues/issue200206/ebook0602001.html
• E-book. (2009, October 11). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 21:38, October 13, 2009, from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=E-book&oldid=319241552
• El polimorfo libro electrónico. José Antonio Millán. (September 2008). In jamillan.com. Retrieved 19:06, October 15, 2009, from http://jamillan.com/librosybitios/polimorfo.htm

Hoy en día, además de poder crear arte (literatura en este caso) en papel, Internet nos da la posibilidad de ser autores de un tipo de literatura llamado “hipertexto”. Este formato innovador da la posibilidad de desplegar un texto gracias a hipervínculos, y de este modo se consigue que la lectura sea más personal, pues el lector suele tener varias opciones a elegir a la hora de leer un hipertexto. De todas formas, la idea que conlleva el hipertexto viene de hace bastantes años, pues Agostino Rameli en 1598 y Vannevar Bush en 1945 ya propusieron sistemas y dispositivos de funcionamiento similar al del hipertexto, pero sin contar con Internet, por supuesto.

El hipertexto no sólo permite romper con la linealidad que caracteriza a un libro, pues el lector va desplegando textos que están conectados unos con otros por enlaces electrónicos, dando lugar a diversos recorridos, sino que a lo que es el texto se le puede añadir imagen y sonido, convirtiendo al hipertexto en hipermedia; esto hace que la actividad de lectura sea, para algunos, más atractiva que la convencional. El papel de lector ahora incorpora nuevas características, como el hecho de que se convierte en un artista múltiple que está dentro de un hiperespacio en el que existen diferentes convergencias artísticas.

Pero no son el lector o el texto los únicos que tienen un nuevo papel en el proceso de creación, el autor también cambia. El creador de un hipertexto ya no debe preocuparse por la unidad de la obra, porque una de las cosas que permite el hipertexto es que no haya punto final, que siempre pueda iniciar algo. Por lo tanto, como Nuria Amat comenta en su libro El libro mudo. Las aventuras del escritor ante la pluma y el ordenador “¿cómo se puede formar una opinión sobre un hipertexto, si no hay unidad?, ¿cómo se comenta?”. Estas reflexiones auguran que este no será el final de la literatura impresa, sino el comienzo de un nuevo círculo.

• Problemáticas del proceso creativo en la narrativa hipertextual. (2009). In Universidad Javeriana, El relato Digital. Retrieved 10:56, September 27, 2009, from http://www.javeriana.edu.co/relato_digital/r_digital/teoria/creativo02.html
• Hacia un nuevo paradigma: El hipertexto como faceta sociocultural de la tecnología. (2009) In ensayistas.org. Retrieved 11:21, September 27, 2009, from http://www.ensayistas.org/critica/teoria/hipertexto/gomez/hipertexto6.htm
• Nuria Amat, El libro mudo. Las aventuras del escritor entre la pluma y el ordenador, Madrid, Ed. Anaya/M.Muchnik, 1994, p. 140.
• A Note on the Concept of  ”Hypertext”. (1999). In Human IT. Retrieved 11:26, September 26, 2009, from http://etjanst.hb.se/bhs/ith//3-99/js.htm
• The End of Books. (June 21, 1992). ROBERT COOVER. In The New York Times on the Web. Retrieved 11:43, September 27, from http://www.times.com/books/98/09/27/specials/coover-end.html

Machine Learning is applied in several areas, such as machine translation, automatic summarization or question-answering systems, and it is a good alternative to the manually built resources, since it can be improved at a lower cost and the guarantees are better. But linguistics may be in danger, for at this time more and more subtle specialist-reserved mathematical device are used.

In data analysis there are some systems that don’t need human intuition, but other systems are conceived so that the machine interacts with the expert. Nevertheless, human intuition is something that will always be needed, for the designer of the system is the one who decides and specifies the way information is represented and manipulated.

Artificial Intelligence has been created as the reflection of Natural Intelligence; intelligent behavior means that not always the reaction to a situation will be the same, what’s more, one of the qualities of intelligence is that behavior has not been programmed, but a computer only carries out something that has previously been programmed.

The algorithms that allow computers learn are classified based on the desired outcome of each algorithm, and Computational Learning Theory (a branch of Theoretical computer science) is responsible of its analysis.

The aim with Machine Learning is to make our life easier by doing programs that learn by themselves while they get experienced with the human, and are able to do common activities in a fast and effective way.

• Machine learning. (2009, June 3). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 14:57, June 8, 2009, from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Machine_learning&oldid=294182041

• Machine Learning. (2009). In Sheffield NLP. Retrieved 18:42, June 10, 2009, from http://nlp.shef.ac.uk/research/areas/nlp_ml.html

• Machine Learning. (2009, June 14). In ATALA, Association pour le Traitement Automatique des Langues. Retrieved 15:28, June 16, 2009, from http://www.atala.org/Machine-Learning-for-NLP

Entre mis aficiones, además de los idiomas, se encuentra la música. Estudié solfeo durante 8 años en el Conservatorio Municipal de Música Bartolomé Ercilla de Durango [...]

Among my interests, besides the languages, he|she finds the music. I studied sol-fa|solfeggio for 8 years in the Municipal Conservatoire|Conservatory of Music Bartolomé Ercilla de Durango [...]

What’s more, in one online translator we are warned and told that an automatic translation will never have the same quality of a translation done by a person (and the translation will be worse if the language is colloquial). Nevertheless, it is useful and you don’t spend so much time.

Machine Translation is a sub-field of computational linguistics and it is the application of computers to translate a text from one natural language to another. What basic MT does is to substitute words from one natural language to another, but more complex translations use corpus techniques and pay attention to the linguistic typology and translate idioms, among other things.

Users can interact with some translators and make the translations less ambiguous, for some of those systems give the user the opportunity to say which words are names. What others translators offer is a list of suggestions, the user chooses the one which best fits with what he was searching for and if none of the possibilities is what he looks for, he does some changes until he gets what he wants. After the TransType project, the results showed that with this way of translating users didn’t spend so much time an effort.

To sum up, we should add something that Ana Fernández Guerra and Francisco Fernández wrote in the book “Machine Translation, Capabilities and Limitations“. We could make some statements in the activity of translating:

1. The possibility of translation: we are supposed to reproduce with total exactness every single piece of text or linguistic structure in other language we would find it difficult.
2. Realize that we don’t translate from one language as a system to another language as a system, but from one text into another text.
3. We should be cautious about some dogmatic statements.
4. In the content (or message) of the text we must consider: meaning, designation and sense.

• Machine translation. (2009, May 18). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 18:54, May 22, 2009, from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Machine_translation&oldid=290714195
• Machine Translation. (2009). In foreignworld.com. Retrieved 19:23, May 22, 2009, from http://www.foreignword.com/Tools/transnow.htm
• Machine Translation. (2008, December 18). In AIT topics. Retrieved 19:36, May 22, from http://www.aaai.org/AITopics/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/AITopics/MachineTranslation
• Machine Translation, Capabilities and Limitations. (Ana Fernández Guerra, Francisco Fernández). (2000). In Universitat de València. Retrieved 11:46, May 23, 2009, from http://books.google.es/books?id=7TE3avRZiSoC&printsec=frontcover&hl=en

When the user enters a word or sentence, he only gets the specific information he is interested in (after a process of text analysis). So, instead of documents, which is what Information retrieval offers, we get just the information we need. That information has been probably taken from a collection of documents, but it has been summarized.

IE is getting more and more important, for the amount information available on the internet grows everyday. People can get to that information more easily thanks to marking-up the data with XML tags, among other things. And not only “people” turns to IE, but also groups use it to summarize medical documents or build medical and biomedical ontologies.

These are the most common subtasks on IE:

• Named Entity Recognition: recognition of entity names (for people and organizations), place names, temporal expressions, and certain types of numerical expressions.
• Coreference: identification chains of noun phrases that refer to the same object. For example, anaphora is a type of coreference.
• Terminology extraction: finding the relevant terms for a given corpus
• Relationship Extraction: identification of relations between entities, such as:

It hasn’t reached the market yet, but it could become a great helper to industries of all kinds (this is an example from Yorick Wilks and Jim Cowie “finance companies want to know facts of the following sort and on a large scale: what company take-overs happened in a given time span; they want widely scattered text information reduced to a simple data base”).

• Information Extraction. (Jim Cowie and Yorick Wilks). (2009). In The University of Sheffield, Department of Computer Science. Retrieved 17:21, May 7, 2009, from http://www.dcs.shef.ac.uk/~yorick/papers/infoext.pdf
• Information extraction. (2009). In GATE, General Architecture for Text Engineering (Natural Language Processing Group, The University of Sheffield). Retrieved 20:56, May 7, 2009, from http://gate.ac.uk/ie/
• Information extraction. (2009, April 29). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 16:49, May 8, 2009, from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Information_extraction&oldid=286789152
• Information Extraction. (2007, February 6). In Open Clinical, knowledge management for medical care. Retrieved 18:45, May 8, from http://www.openclinical.org/informationextraction.html

Nearly all the Speech synthesizers use libraries of speech sound. The creation of this dicctionarie is important, because it is important to recognize the word user uses. To make the recognition easier, here is a recognition of vowels and recognition of consonants, and also a noise masking (some movile phones, for example, can work when we “talk” to them, and if we are on the street, there must be something that makes the sound clear). But even if the system has these advantages, mistakes may not be avoided. Most speech recognition algorithms rely only on the sound of the individual words, and not on their context, so they don’t understand speech, but recognize words. Here is an example of what could happen:

The child wore a spider ring on Halloween.

He was an American spy during the war.

The sound of “spider ring” and “spy during” is exactly the same. We hear the correct words depending on the context, and is something that we do unconsciously.

There are many ways of application of this system, but I think that the fact people with disabilities benefit from it is the most interesting. Some of them are unable to use their hands, others are deaf and use deaf telephony (voicemail to text, realy services or captioned telephone), and others have learning disabilities. There’s no doubt that our life will be easier in some years’ time when this systems get better.

• Sistemas de reconocimiento y síntesis de voz. (1999). In Diccionario español/inglés para el aprendizaje de vocabulario utilizando una interfaz de voz. Retrieved 19:56 April 24, 2009, from http://catarina.udlap.mx/u_dl_a/tales/documentos/lis/ahuactzin_l_a/capitulo1.pdf
• Speech Recognition and Synthesis. (1999). In Stanford University. Retrieved 20:48, April 24, 2009, from http://ccrma.stanford.edu/CCRMA/Courses/152/speech_recognition.html
• Speech recognition. (2009, April 20). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 09:34, April 25, 2009, from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Speech_recognition&oldid=285079884
• Speech Synthesis and Recognition. (1997-2007). In The Scientist and Engineer’s Guide to Digital Signal Processing. Retrieved 10:14 April 25, 2009, from http://www.dspguide.com/ch22/6.htm

Question answering, also known as QA, is a way of getting that information; this system should be able to answer our questions (done in natural language), searching in pre-structured database or documents written in natural language.

As Dell Zhang and Wee Sun Lee wrote in one article “it is important for an online question answering system to be practical, because it is time-consuming to download and analyze the original web documents”. A question answering system is another information retrieval system, but what QA systems do is supply just the information we need, not a list of possibilities as searching engines usually do. To obtain the answers, the QA systems combine some NLP techniques, because the answer depends on the type of question.

And as I have told, depending on the question, the methods used to find the answers are different. There are two methods: shallow and deep. The first one finds fragments of documents, filters the information based on the presence of the answer required, and then the answers are ordered based on different criteria, such as word order. If the way the question is formulated is not enough (or, for example, some of the questions based are classified with an incorrect type), the second method is used. “More sophisticated syntactic, semantic and contextual processing must be performed to extract or construct the answer”.

So, there have been many advances on this kind of information retrieval systems, but dealing with Natural Language with computers is quite difficult, and it can be hard to get the data we are looking for using that kind of language with systems that have to improve a lot.

• The problems in a Question Answering System in the academic domain. (2007). In RUA Repositorio Institucional de la Universidad de Alicante. Retrieved 20:08, April 1, 2009, from  http://rua.ua.es/dspace/bitstream/10045/4297/1/ranlp07.pdf
• Question Answering. (2009, March 20). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 20:24, April 01, 2009, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Question_answering
• Question Answering system. (2009). In START Natural Language Question Answering System. Retrieved 17:53, April 3, 2009, from http://start.csail.mit.edu/
• A Web-based Question Answering System (Dell Zhang and Wee Sun Lee). (2003, January). In Dspace. Retrieved 18:36, April 3, 2009, from http://dspace.mit.edu/bitstream/handle/1721.1/3693/CS029.pdf?sequence=2